HARDWARE EMULATION

Hardware emulation is the use of one hardware device to mimic the function of another hardware device.
A hardware emulator is designed to simulate the workings of an entirely different hardware platform than the one it runs on. Hardware emulation is generally used to debug and verify a system under design.
An administrator must use hardware emulation if he needs to run an unsupported operating system (OS) within a virtual machine (VM). In such a scenario, the virtual machine does not have direct access to server hardware. Instead, an emulation layer directs traffic between physical and virtual hardware. This is less efficient than paravirtualization, which allows for an interface to the virtual machine that can differ somewhat from that of the underlying hardware.
Microsoft's Hyper-V includes hardware emulation because the Integration Services can only be installed on certain guest operating systems.  The hardware emulation allows the network administrator to run and interact with an embedded operating system from a desktop that couldn't normally support that operating system. (An embedded OS is a type of operating system that is created to run in dedicated hardware environments or on systems that aren't intended for interactive use.)

software technology (measuring productivity)

you cannot control what you cannot measure. This holds especially for software productivity, where many companies struggle how to measure and improve it. Often we in software and IT fail to understand that productivity relates to delivering value – as opposed to collecting features and increasing complexity. This blog will provide some guidance and hints for measuring productivity. Let me know of any further question or stimulus arising from this blog.

Measuring productivity is mandatory to understand and improve your cost drivers. Only your own productivity measurements and analyses can provide concrete efficiency levers to improve your specific situation. Measuring productivity is difficult – especially for software and IT, where value is often difficult to grasp.

Productivity measurement is used on the macroscopic level such as for benchmarking organizations or projects. And it is applied to the microscopic level, such as for estimating work packages, identifying overheads or analyzing what product components are overly expensive. Productivity improvement needs precisely defined productivity measurements – which are based on SMART improvement goals, that is specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and timely goals. Do not measure before you have specified your overarching improvement goals.

Here are a few guidelines on measuring software productivity:

1) Take a value perspective when determining output. Productivity is output over input. Output is about delivering value and doing the right things. It has to do with perception of your stakeholders - macroscopically and microscopically. It is about being effective. Input is the way you create this output. It relates how well you are working. It is about efficiency. Therefore I strongly advocate taking a value-oriented perspective for productivity measurement and improvement. Don't simply measure your "output" by what you physically deliver, because down the line clients don't buy software. They always look for solutions to needs.

2) Measure productivity to achieve improvement goals. It is of no added value due to its many facets. Imagine you have a Function Point driven productivity baseline. Does it tell you anything where and how to improve? Does it allow to benchmark? Hardly. Therefore take an objective-driven approach to measurement and first clearly understand and define what you really need to do. If it is about reducing cost, your baseline will analyze cost (e.g., Cost of non-quality, rework, variant management, etc.). If it is about evaluating tenders of competing teams, solutions or suppliers, you ought to consider quality or SLA levels, schedule impacts, etc. which all impact productivity. If it is about improving the productivity of your engineers, you need to look to work environment, time pressure, competences, etc.

3) Consider context and environment when setting up measurements. As a first shot we are using for clients' productivity baselines, longitudinal studies, benchmarks and supplier evaluations our tools to provide a defined and repeatable "Productivity Indicator”. We are setting up models, often based on function points or similar tangible outputs, which take into consideration the relevant environmental factors. Environmental factors include for instance the desired quality of the software, distribution of locations, reuse degree, etc. Comparing and benchmarking organizations or projects without considering such factors means comparing apples with pears.

With these rules in mind you can derive your own productivity baseline. In our client projects we often use Function Points (as output) by person weeks (as input). Alternatively in industry we are using normalized requirements, such as feature count, etc. On the microscopic level we look to work time for comparable results such as FP, test cases, engineering change requests, etc. Make sure the input measure is a real effort figure, including overtime and excluding holidays. You can later always normalize to calendar time, but never catch up if you did not consider all effort and time which was invested as input. Looking to trends and outliers, rather than to the absolute figures, typically provides more insight to improving productivity.

NETWORK SWITCH

A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that links network segments or network devices. The term commonly refers to a multi-port network bridge that processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3) and above are often called layer-3 switches or multilayer switches.

Switches exist for various types of networks including Fibre Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode, InfiniBand, Ethernet and others. The first Ethernet switch was introduced by Kalpana in 1990.[1]

A 19-inch rack used for switches at the DE-CIX in Frankfurt, Germany

A switch is a telecommunication device that receives a message from any device connected to it and then transmits the message only to the device for which the message was meant. This makes the switch a more intelligent device than a hub (which receives a message and then transmits it to all the other devices on its network). The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office/home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as a residential gateway to access small office/home broadband services such as DSL or cable Internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for VoIP.

An Ethernet switch operates at the data link layer of the OSI model to create a separate collision domain for each switch port. With 4 computers (e.g., A, B, C, and D) on 4 switch ports, any pair (e.g. A and B) can transfer data back and forth while the other pair (e.g. C and D) also do so simultaneously, and the two conversations will not interfere with one another. In full duplex mode, these pairs can also overlap (e.g. A transmits to B, simultaneously B to C, and so on). In the case of a repeater hub, they would all share the bandwidth and run in half duplex, resulting in collisions, which would then necessitate retransmissions.

Microsegmentation[edit source]

Using a bridge or a switch (or a router) to split a larger collision domain into smaller ones in order to reduce collision probability and improve overall throughput is called segmentation. In the extreme of microsegmentation, each device is located on a dedicated switch port. In contrast to an Ethernet hub, there is a separate collision domain on each of the switch ports. This allows computers to have dedicated bandwidth on point-to-point connections to the network and also to run in full duplex without collisions. Full duplex mode has only one transmitter and one receiver per 'collision domain', making collisions impossible.

Role of switches in a network[edit source]

Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including data link and network. A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch.

In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, ATM, ITU-T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While layer-2 functionality is adequate for bandwidth-shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring is easier at layer 3.

Devices that interconnect at layer 3 are traditionally called routers, so layer-3 switches can also be regarded as (relatively primitive) routers.

Where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security, switches may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall,[2][3] network intrusion detection,[4] and performance analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules.[5]

In other cases, the switch is used to create a mirror image of data that can go to an external device. Since most switch port mirroring provides only one mirrored stream, network hubs can be useful for fanning out data to several read-only analyzers, such as intrusion detection systems and packet sniffers.

Layer-specific functionality[edit source]

Main article: Multilayer switch

 A modular network switch with three network modules (a total of 24 Ethernet and 14 Fast Ethernet ports) and one power supply.

While switches may learn about topologies at many layers, and forward at one or more layers, they do tend to have common features. Other than for high-performance applications, modern commercial switches use primarily Ethernet interfaces.

At any layer, a modern switch may implement power over Ethernet (PoE), which avoids the need for attached devices, such as a VoIP phone or wireless access point, to have a separate power supply. Since switches can have redundant power circuits connected to uninterruptible power supplies, the connected device can continue operating even when regular office power fails.

Layer 1 (Hubs versus higher-layer switches)[edit source]

A network hub, or repeater, is a simple network device. Repeater hubs do not manage any of the traffic that comes through them. Any packet entering a port is flooded out or "repeated" on every other port, except for the port of entry. Since every packet is repeated on every other port, packet collisions affect the entire network, limiting its capacity.

A switch creates the – originally mandatory – Layer 1 end-to-end connection only virtually. Its bridge function selects which packets are forwarded to which port(s) on the basis of information taken from layer 2 (or higher), removing the requirement that every node be presented with all data. The connection lines are not "switched" literally, it only appears like this on the packet level. "Bridging hub", "switching hub", or "multiport bridge" would be more appropriate terms.

There are specialized applications where a hub can be useful, such as copying traffic to multiple network sensors. High end switches have a feature which does the same thing called port mirroring.

By the early 2000s, there was little price difference between a hub and a low-end switch.[6]

Layer 2[edit source]

A network bridge, operating at the data link layer, may interconnect a small number of devices in a home or the office. This is a trivial case of bridging, in which the bridge learns the MAC address of each connected device.

Single bridges also can provide extremely high performance in specialized applications such as storage area networks.

Classic bridges may also interconnect using a spanning tree protocol that disables links so that the resulting local area network is a tree without loops. In contrast to routers, spanning tree bridges must have topologies with only one active path between two points. The older IEEE 802.1D spanning tree protocol could be quite slow, with forwarding stopping for 30 seconds while the spanning tree reconverged. A Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol was introduced as IEEE 802.1w. The newest standard Shortest path bridging (IEEE 802.1aq) is the next logical progression and incorporates all the older Spanning Tree Protocols (IEEE 802.1D STP, IEEE 802.1w RSTP, IEEE 802.1s MSTP) that blocked traffic on all but one alternative path. IEEE 802.1aq (Shortest Path Bridging SPB) allows all paths to be active with multiple equal cost paths, provides much larger layer 2 topologies (up to 16 million compared to the 4096 VLANs limit),[7] faster convergence, and improves the use of the mesh topologies through increase bandwidth and redundancy between all devices by allowing traffic to load share across all paths of a mesh network.[8][9][10][11]

While layer 2 switch remains more of a marketing term than a technical term,[citation needed] the products that were introduced as "switches" tended to use microsegmentation and Full duplex to prevent collisions among devices connected to Ethernet. By using an internal forwarding plane much faster than any interface, they give the impression of simultaneous paths among multiple devices. 'Non-blocking' devices use a forwarding plane or equivalent method fast enough to allow full duplex traffic for each port simultaneously.

Once a bridge learns the addresses of its connected nodes, it forwards data link layer frames using a layer 2 forwarding method. There are four forwarding methods a bridge can use, of which the second through fourth method were performance-increasing methods when used on "switch" products with the same input and output port bandwidths:

Store and forward: The switch buffers and verifies each frame before forwarding it.

Cut through: The switch reads only up to the frame's hardware address before starting to forward it. Cut-through switches have to fall back to store and forward if the outgoing port is busy at the time the packet arrives. There is no error checking with this method.

Fragment free: A method that attempts to retain the benefits of both store and forward and cut through. Fragment free checks the first 64 bytes of the frame, where addressing information is stored. According to Ethernet specifications, collisions should be detected during the first 64 bytes of the frame, so frames that are in error because of a collision will not be forwarded. This way the frame will always reach its intended destination. Error checking of the actual data in the packet is left for the end device.

Adaptive switching: A method of automatically selecting between the other three modes.

While there are specialized applications, such as storage area networks, where the input and output interfaces are the same bandwidth, this is not always the case in general LAN applications. In LANs, a switch used for end user access typically concentrates lower bandwidth and uplinks into a higher bandwidth.

Layer 3[edit source]

Within the confines of the Ethernet physical layer, a layer-3 switch can perform some or all of the functions normally performed by a router. The most common layer-3 capability is awareness of IP multicast through IGMP snooping. With this awareness, a layer-3 switch can increase efficiency by delivering the traffic of a multicast group only to ports where the attached device has signaled that it wants to listen to that group.

Layer 4[edit source]

While the exact meaning of the term layer-4 switch is vendor-dependent, it almost always starts with a capability for network address translation, but then adds some type of load distribution based on TCP sessions.[12]

The device may include a stateful firewall, a VPN concentrator, or be an IPSec security gateway.

Layer 7[edit source]

Layer-7 switches may distribute loads based on Uniform Resource Locator URL or by some installation-specific technique to recognize application-level transactions. A layer-7 switch may include a web cache and participate in a content delivery network.[13]

Rack-mounted 24-port 3Com switch

Types of switches[edit source]

Form factor[edit source]

Desktop, not mounted in an enclosure, typically intended to be used in a home or office environment outside of a wiring closet

Rack mounted - A switch that mounts in an equipment rack

Chassis - with swappable module cards

DIN rail mounted - normally seen in industrial environments or panels

Configuration options[edit source]

Unmanaged switches — These switches have no configuration interface or options. They are plug and play. They are typically the least expensive switches, and therefore often used in a small office/home office environment. Unmanaged switches can be desktop or rack mounted.

Managed switches — These switches have one or more methods to modify the operation of the switch. Common management methods include: a command-line interface (CLI) accessed via serial console, telnet or Secure Shell, an embedded Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) agent allowing management from a remote console or management station, or a web interface for management from a web browser. Examples of configuration changes that one can do from a managed switch include: enable features such as Spanning Tree Protocol, set port bandwidth, create or modify Virtual LANs (VLANs), etc. Two sub-classes of managed switches are marketed today:

Smart (or intelligent) switches — These are managed switches with a limited set of management features. Likewise "web-managed" switches are switches which fall into a market niche between unmanaged and managed. For a price much lower than a fully managed switch they provide a web interface (and usually no CLI access) and allow configuration of basic settings, such as VLANs, port-bandwidth and duplex.[14]

Enterprise Managed (or fully managed) switches — These have a full set of management features, including CLI, SNMP agent, and web interface. They may have additional features to manipulate configurations, such as the ability to display, modify, backup and restore configurations. Compared with smart switches, enterprise switches have more features that can be customized or optimized, and are generally more expensive than smart switches. Enterprise switches are typically found in networks with larger number of switches and connections, where centralized management is a significant savings in administrative time and effort. A stackable switch is a version of enterprise-managed switch.

Typical switch management features[edit source]

Linksys 48-port switch

 HP Procurve rack-mounted switches mounted in a standard Telco Rack 19-inch rack with network cables

Turn particular port range on or off

Link bandwidth and duplex settings

Priority settings for ports

IP Management by IP Clustering.

MAC filtering and other types of "port security" features which prevent MAC flooding

Use of Spanning Tree Protocol

SNMP monitoring of device and link health

Port mirroring (also known as: port monitoring, spanning port, SPAN port, roving analysis port or link mode port)

Link aggregation (also known as bonding, trunking or teaming) allows the use of multiple ports for the same connection achieving higher data transfer rates

VLAN settings. Creating VLANs can serve security and performance goals by reducing the size of the broadcast domain.

802.1X network access control

IGMP snooping

Traffic monitoring on a switched network[edit source]

Unless port mirroring or other methods such as RMON, SMON or sFlow are implemented in a switch,[15] it is difficult to monitor traffic that is bridged using a switch because only the sending and receiving ports can see the traffic. These monitoring features are rarely present on consumer-grade switches.

Two popular methods that are specifically designed to allow a network analyst to monitor traffic are:

Port mirroring — the switch sends a copy of network packets to a monitoring network connection.

SMON — "Switch Monitoring" is described by RFC 2613 and is a protocol for controlling facilities such as port mirroring.

Another method to monitor may be to connect a layer-1 hub between the monitored device and its switch port. This will induce minor delay, but will provide multiple interfaces that can be used to monitor the individual switch port.

NETWORK SWITCH

A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that links network segments or network devices. The term commonly refers to a multi-port network bridge that processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3) and above are often called layer-3 switches or multilayer switches.

Switches exist for various types of networks including Fibre Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode, InfiniBand, Ethernet and others. The first Ethernet switch was introduced by Kalpana in 1990.[1]

A 19-inch rack used for switches at the DE-CIX in Frankfurt, Germany

A switch is a telecommunication device that receives a message from any device connected to it and then transmits the message only to the device for which the message was meant. This makes the switch a more intelligent device than a hub (which receives a message and then transmits it to all the other devices on its network). The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office/home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as a residential gateway to access small office/home broadband services such as DSL or cable Internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for VoIP.

An Ethernet switch operates at the data link layer of the OSI model to create a separate collision domain for each switch port. With 4 computers (e.g., A, B, C, and D) on 4 switch ports, any pair (e.g. A and B) can transfer data back and forth while the other pair (e.g. C and D) also do so simultaneously, and the two conversations will not interfere with one another. In full duplex mode, these pairs can also overlap (e.g. A transmits to B, simultaneously B to C, and so on). In the case of a repeater hub, they would all share the bandwidth and run in half duplex, resulting in collisions, which would then necessitate retransmissions.

Microsegmentation[edit source]

Using a bridge or a switch (or a router) to split a larger collision domain into smaller ones in order to reduce collision probability and improve overall throughput is called segmentation. In the extreme of microsegmentation, each device is located on a dedicated switch port. In contrast to an Ethernet hub, there is a separate collision domain on each of the switch ports. This allows computers to have dedicated bandwidth on point-to-point connections to the network and also to run in full duplex without collisions. Full duplex mode has only one transmitter and one receiver per 'collision domain', making collisions impossible.

Role of switches in a network[edit source]

Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including data link and network. A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch.

In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, ATM, ITU-T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While layer-2 functionality is adequate for bandwidth-shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring is easier at layer 3.

Devices that interconnect at layer 3 are traditionally called routers, so layer-3 switches can also be regarded as (relatively primitive) routers.

Where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security, switches may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall,[2][3] network intrusion detection,[4] and performance analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules.[5]

In other cases, the switch is used to create a mirror image of data that can go to an external device. Since most switch port mirroring provides only one mirrored stream, network hubs can be useful for fanning out data to several read-only analyzers, such as intrusion detection systems and packet sniffers.

Layer-specific functionality[edit source]

Main article: Multilayer switch

 A modular network switch with three network modules (a total of 24 Ethernet and 14 Fast Ethernet ports) and one power supply.

While switches may learn about topologies at many layers, and forward at one or more layers, they do tend to have common features. Other than for high-performance applications, modern commercial switches use primarily Ethernet interfaces.

At any layer, a modern switch may implement power over Ethernet (PoE), which avoids the need for attached devices, such as a VoIP phone or wireless access point, to have a separate power supply. Since switches can have redundant power circuits connected to uninterruptible power supplies, the connected device can continue operating even when regular office power fails.

Layer 1 (Hubs versus higher-layer switches)[edit source]

A network hub, or repeater, is a simple network device. Repeater hubs do not manage any of the traffic that comes through them. Any packet entering a port is flooded out or "repeated" on every other port, except for the port of entry. Since every packet is repeated on every other port, packet collisions affect the entire network, limiting its capacity.

A switch creates the – originally mandatory – Layer 1 end-to-end connection only virtually. Its bridge function selects which packets are forwarded to which port(s) on the basis of information taken from layer 2 (or higher), removing the requirement that every node be presented with all data. The connection lines are not "switched" literally, it only appears like this on the packet level. "Bridging hub", "switching hub", or "multiport bridge" would be more appropriate terms.

There are specialized applications where a hub can be useful, such as copying traffic to multiple network sensors. High end switches have a feature which does the same thing called port mirroring.

By the early 2000s, there was little price difference between a hub and a low-end switch.[6]

Layer 2[edit source]

A network bridge, operating at the data link layer, may interconnect a small number of devices in a home or the office. This is a trivial case of bridging, in which the bridge learns the MAC address of each connected device.

Single bridges also can provide extremely high performance in specialized applications such as storage area networks.

Classic bridges may also interconnect using a spanning tree protocol that disables links so that the resulting local area network is a tree without loops. In contrast to routers, spanning tree bridges must have topologies with only one active path between two points. The older IEEE 802.1D spanning tree protocol could be quite slow, with forwarding stopping for 30 seconds while the spanning tree reconverged. A Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol was introduced as IEEE 802.1w. The newest standard Shortest path bridging (IEEE 802.1aq) is the next logical progression and incorporates all the older Spanning Tree Protocols (IEEE 802.1D STP, IEEE 802.1w RSTP, IEEE 802.1s MSTP) that blocked traffic on all but one alternative path. IEEE 802.1aq (Shortest Path Bridging SPB) allows all paths to be active with multiple equal cost paths, provides much larger layer 2 topologies (up to 16 million compared to the 4096 VLANs limit),[7] faster convergence, and improves the use of the mesh topologies through increase bandwidth and redundancy between all devices by allowing traffic to load share across all paths of a mesh network.[8][9][10][11]

While layer 2 switch remains more of a marketing term than a technical term,[citation needed] the products that were introduced as "switches" tended to use microsegmentation and Full duplex to prevent collisions among devices connected to Ethernet. By using an internal forwarding plane much faster than any interface, they give the impression of simultaneous paths among multiple devices. 'Non-blocking' devices use a forwarding plane or equivalent method fast enough to allow full duplex traffic for each port simultaneously.

Once a bridge learns the addresses of its connected nodes, it forwards data link layer frames using a layer 2 forwarding method. There are four forwarding methods a bridge can use, of which the second through fourth method were performance-increasing methods when used on "switch" products with the same input and output port bandwidths:

Store and forward: The switch buffers and verifies each frame before forwarding it.

Cut through: The switch reads only up to the frame's hardware address before starting to forward it. Cut-through switches have to fall back to store and forward if the outgoing port is busy at the time the packet arrives. There is no error checking with this method.

Fragment free: A method that attempts to retain the benefits of both store and forward and cut through. Fragment free checks the first 64 bytes of the frame, where addressing information is stored. According to Ethernet specifications, collisions should be detected during the first 64 bytes of the frame, so frames that are in error because of a collision will not be forwarded. This way the frame will always reach its intended destination. Error checking of the actual data in the packet is left for the end device.

Adaptive switching: A method of automatically selecting between the other three modes.

While there are specialized applications, such as storage area networks, where the input and output interfaces are the same bandwidth, this is not always the case in general LAN applications. In LANs, a switch used for end user access typically concentrates lower bandwidth and uplinks into a higher bandwidth.

Layer 3[edit source]

Within the confines of the Ethernet physical layer, a layer-3 switch can perform some or all of the functions normally performed by a router. The most common layer-3 capability is awareness of IP multicast through IGMP snooping. With this awareness, a layer-3 switch can increase efficiency by delivering the traffic of a multicast group only to ports where the attached device has signaled that it wants to listen to that group.

Layer 4[edit source]

While the exact meaning of the term layer-4 switch is vendor-dependent, it almost always starts with a capability for network address translation, but then adds some type of load distribution based on TCP sessions.[12]

The device may include a stateful firewall, a VPN concentrator, or be an IPSec security gateway.

Layer 7[edit source]

Layer-7 switches may distribute loads based on Uniform Resource Locator URL or by some installation-specific technique to recognize application-level transactions. A layer-7 switch may include a web cache and participate in a content delivery network.[13]

Rack-mounted 24-port 3Com switch

Types of switches[edit source]

Form factor[edit source]

Desktop, not mounted in an enclosure, typically intended to be used in a home or office environment outside of a wiring closet

Rack mounted - A switch that mounts in an equipment rack

Chassis - with swappable module cards

DIN rail mounted - normally seen in industrial environments or panels

Configuration options[edit source]

Unmanaged switches — These switches have no configuration interface or options. They are plug and play. They are typically the least expensive switches, and therefore often used in a small office/home office environment. Unmanaged switches can be desktop or rack mounted.

Managed switches — These switches have one or more methods to modify the operation of the switch. Common management methods include: a command-line interface (CLI) accessed via serial console, telnet or Secure Shell, an embedded Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) agent allowing management from a remote console or management station, or a web interface for management from a web browser. Examples of configuration changes that one can do from a managed switch include: enable features such as Spanning Tree Protocol, set port bandwidth, create or modify Virtual LANs (VLANs), etc. Two sub-classes of managed switches are marketed today:

Smart (or intelligent) switches — These are managed switches with a limited set of management features. Likewise "web-managed" switches are switches which fall into a market niche between unmanaged and managed. For a price much lower than a fully managed switch they provide a web interface (and usually no CLI access) and allow configuration of basic settings, such as VLANs, port-bandwidth and duplex.[14]

Enterprise Managed (or fully managed) switches — These have a full set of management features, including CLI, SNMP agent, and web interface. They may have additional features to manipulate configurations, such as the ability to display, modify, backup and restore configurations. Compared with smart switches, enterprise switches have more features that can be customized or optimized, and are generally more expensive than smart switches. Enterprise switches are typically found in networks with larger number of switches and connections, where centralized management is a significant savings in administrative time and effort. A stackable switch is a version of enterprise-managed switch.

Typical switch management features[edit source]

Linksys 48-port switch

 HP Procurve rack-mounted switches mounted in a standard Telco Rack 19-inch rack with network cables

Turn particular port range on or off

Link bandwidth and duplex settings

Priority settings for ports

IP Management by IP Clustering.

MAC filtering and other types of "port security" features which prevent MAC flooding

Use of Spanning Tree Protocol

SNMP monitoring of device and link health

Port mirroring (also known as: port monitoring, spanning port, SPAN port, roving analysis port or link mode port)

Link aggregation (also known as bonding, trunking or teaming) allows the use of multiple ports for the same connection achieving higher data transfer rates

VLAN settings. Creating VLANs can serve security and performance goals by reducing the size of the broadcast domain.

802.1X network access control

IGMP snooping

Traffic monitoring on a switched network[edit source]

Unless port mirroring or other methods such as RMON, SMON or sFlow are implemented in a switch,[15] it is difficult to monitor traffic that is bridged using a switch because only the sending and receiving ports can see the traffic. These monitoring features are rarely present on consumer-grade switches.

Two popular methods that are specifically designed to allow a network analyst to monitor traffic are:

Port mirroring — the switch sends a copy of network packets to a monitoring network connection.

SMON — "Switch Monitoring" is described by RFC 2613 and is a protocol for controlling facilities such as port mirroring.

Another method to monitor may be to connect a layer-1 hub between the monitored device and its switch port. This will induce minor delay, but will provide multiple interfaces that can be used to monitor the individual switch port.

router

ROUTER

With the right state of mind of worship Ÿ̲̣̣̣̥Ø̲̣̣̥U̶̲̥̅̊ can move mountain